Post Traumatic Stress Disorder is most certainly a commonly known disorder which has been portrayed in a wide variety of films. The fact that these films have given exposure to PTSD is generally a positive thing, but these films can also contribute to stigmas and stereotypes that surround the condition. One assumes if someone suffers from PTSD, they were probably a combat veteran and will probably exhibit extreme symptoms related to paranoid psychosis. Others even suggest it is a fabricated disorder. As Allan Young argues in his book, The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, PTSD is only created by the psychiatric community to provide compensation and support to trauma sufferers. These misconceptions and misunderstandings surrounding PTSD can only hurt those who suffer from this condition.

To fully understand what having Post Traumatic Stress Disorder really means, let us examine the criteria one must meet to be diagnosed with the condition as it is described in the DSM-IV (1994). Posttraumatic Stress Disorder by the DSM-IV’s definition is:

the development of characteristic symptoms following exposure to an extreme traumatic stressor involving direct personal experience of an event that involves actual or threatened death, injury, or a threat to the physical integrity of another person; or learning about unexpected or violent death, serious harm, or threat of death or injury experienced by a family member or other close associate.

The DSM-IV also includes certain factors in the criteria for those suffering from Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. The first criterion is a stressor; usually the person has either been the victim of an event or events that threaten death or serious injury, or has witnessed violent or life-threatening events. The second criterion discusses intrusive recollection. This means the person suffers from flashbacks of sorts, possibly in thoughts, perceptions, or dreams. The third criterion is a persistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma. Other criteria include hyper-arousal, which does not necessarily mean the person is hyper-vigilant. For example, a person with this condition might have difficulty concentrating and falling asleep, and still meet the required criterion. The duration for this condition is at least one month. With regards to these criteria and definition, it is obvious that these symptoms could persist in a civilian as well as someone in combat. As discussed in Lisa Beall’s Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Bibliographic Essay, PTSD has several other major civilian victims. Though not often considered, several Holocaust Survivors were the first to be recorded as showing symptoms of PTSD. Beall also discusses women and children who have witnessed or been victim to abuse of some kind, and those who were victims of natural or man made disasters. Another group that could be added in the most recent years could be victims or witnesses of terrorist attacks. All of these groups, though they do not come to mind when one first thinks of PTSD, may suffer from the same symptoms agreed upon by the psychological community. It is important that society takes equal notice of these sufferers as well, and recognizes that these people, though survivors of whatever ordeal, are still victims in this way.

One aspect that most surprises people about PTSD, is its history. Though it “has only been formally introduced into the third edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM III),” the condition, and most certainly the symptoms existed long before it was officially recorded. Military doctors as early as the 1800’s began diagnosing soldiers with “exhaustion” due to what they believed was a mental shutdown from the stress and environmental issues the soldier had to undergo. Closer to the turn of the century, these early doctors had created a syndrome known as “railway spine” or “railway hysteria” that resembled our time’s PTSD. This was not for veterans, but rather for people who had been through traumatic accidents on the railroads. The first published paper that discussed the mental struggles of veterans was from Dr. Mendez DaCosta in 1884. His work referred to combat veterans as having a “Soldier’s Heart.”

Throughout the 1900’s, much progress was made for these besieged soldiers. After World War I, the more commonly known term “shell shock” emerged along with World War II’s combat fatigue (Parrish, Chapter 1). The term “Post Traumatic Stress Disorder” was not coined until 1980 with the third edition of the DSM. The first edition of the DSM (1952) described it as “stress response syndrome,” which was caused by “gross stress reaction.” Later, in the DSM II (1968), any mental condition associated with trauma became known as a “situational disorder.” As discussed by Parrish, in his Military Veterans Manual, this lack of real diagnosis, and real understanding contributed to the high suicide rate of Vietnam veterans after they returned to civilian life. The history, though only brief detail is discussed in this essay, is terribly important in the understanding of PTSD as it is today.

Many soldiers still undergo acceptance issues in the psychological community. One of the most prominent arguments, as mentioned previously, is Allan Young’s The Harmony of Illusions: Inventing Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. As Gerald Weissmann stated in a book review

Allan Young. . . would disagree with the notion that [PTSD] has always been with us, arguing that the traumatic memory is a man-made object. . . . His book is a lucid case-study of the way medicine and society have managed to build up this man-made disorder over the past century and a half.

—The London Review of Books

Though Young brings up several strong arguments, my view is that it is merely disabling to those who suffer from PTSD. To label their condition man-made is to belittle the situation they are in. Suggestions like these make it even more difficult for soldiers and others suffering from PTSD to be accepted by society. Since we have discussed psychological views and historical views, let us now take a look at what one combat veteran’s views are on the issue.

During an interview with Charles Bryant, a sophomore here at East Carolina University, I was able to hear about this condition from the point of view of a soldier. Charles began the interview explaining that he himself did not have flashbacks. He decided when he got back to put his memories behind him, and move on with his life. This could arguably be used to back up Allan Young’s point, but he shared with me information that only a soldier could provide. He only made it through those experiences because of a mindset he had, and the strong will others were unfortunate not to have. He explained to me that many soldiers don’t report they suffer from PTSD symptoms when leaving the military. The United States government almost creates a situation where they can’t. If you are a soldier serving overseas, and are only days away from returning home to your loved ones, you must first do the necessary paperwork to be able to leave. Among this paperwork, are inquiries concerning your mental state. Here the soldier is faced with a difficult decision. Bryant explained that if you say you have mental instability, the United States will retain you, keep you at your present station so that you can speak with a doctor there. Not only does this keep you from returning home as you had hoped, but you now have a medical profile. Because of this, you are treated differently by your fellow soldiers, given details that nobody else wants to do. When I first heard this, I was rather surprised, thinking that the soldiers turn their backs on each other so quickly, because one sought out medical help. Bryant went on to say that it is not out of disrespect, but in any case of depression, or PTSD, the weapon is confiscated, and many soldiers assume the person is not in the right state of mind to fight alongside the rest, and could not do the job as well because of their condition. Charles shared with me a story of a soldier, who as a result of the stresses and traumas of serving his country, lost his rational understanding and proceeded to take his own life and the lives of fellow soldiers believing them to be the enemies. This story showed me what it might really be like to witness someone whose mind was so damaged, that he could take the lives of his fellow Americans believing they were the opponents. Discussing this stigma surrounding the mental profile given to soldiers, I asked Charles if he believed serving his country made him more or less sympathetic towards fellow soldiers who suffer from PTSD than the civilian population. He said he felt sympathy for these men and women because he has been through some of the same issues. To fight any war, you must be conditioned to kill, brainwashed almost. The army must, in a way, desensitize you to the violence and convince you that you are doing the right thing because they are the “bad guys,” and you are serving your country! Charles and I talked about the history and development of PTSD. He said war today is the same as war hundreds of years ago. “It’s bloody, not glorious.” It does nothing but drain the country’s resources, and the same effects have been happening no matter what the war is being fought for. Charles Bryant was not one of the men going into the war ready and excited about what lay before him, though he said he knew some men were. He went and realized what it really meant to be in such a dangerous situation. He said these instincts are indoctrinated in you; kill or be killed situations. He used the words “broken mind” often in our discussion. I can not think of a more accurate description. For the men and women who have been through something so awful as war, violence, or assaults, one can not leave that situation unharmed, even if they leave uninjured.

This discussion on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder has not only been to inform, but to raise understanding. The men and women that suffer from this condition should be treated as just that…men and women; it should be understood they have a circumstantial sickness, and these situations have been around for centuries. Once society as a whole can grasp what the psychological community has been developing an understanding of for over two hundred years, we can learn to accept these people.

Sources:

• American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders DSM-IV-TR ( Fourth ed.). Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Association.
• Beall, Lisa. “Post Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Bibliographic Essay.” Auburn University Libraries. 20 Oct. 2007. http://www.lib.auburn.edu/socsci/docs/ptsd.html
• Bryant, Charles. “Discussion of PTSD.” By Kendall E. Bradshaw.
• “National Center for PTSD.” United States Deparment of Veterans Affairs. 16 Oct. 2007.
  http://www.ncptsd.va.gov/ncmain/index.jsp
• Parrish, Bub. Military Veterans (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Reference Manual) Brynn Mawr, PA: Infinity Publishing, 1999. 31 December 19http://www.ptsdmanual.com/index.htm

Institutionalization is a method used by mental health professionals to cure the numerous mental illnesses afflicting individuals, but are they actually accomplishing their goals? It is assumed by much of society that psychiatric hospitals should nurture patients back to a state of “normal” mental health. Within mental hospitals there are different types of therapies and medications that are used when treating patients. However, these actions could be considered a “cover up” by some people if the real reason that these types of institutions were founded was to “warehouse” these individuals. The history of psychiatric hospitals is linked heavily with social and scientific attitudes toward mentally ill people, which have changed greatly over the past centuries. Generally speaking, in rural areas the mentally ill had been able to rely on local support of the people around them, or managed to simply go unnoticed amongst the rest of the population. However, under the demands of larger cities they faced a higher degree of difficulty and had a much greater chance of causing disruption or simply being a nuisance. As one writer put it, “Concern about the alleged dangerousness of an individual is raised in a variety of contexts…” (Shah) and it is believed that they should all be taken out of society and placed into institutions. When viewed in this way, mental institutions take on the profile of a jail for the mentally and emotionally disturbed, a harbor for those individuals who may differ a little from ourselves, yet are fundamentally the same as us.

In viewing mental health patients, in real life or in film, each case is different. Whereas one person might be physically or emotionally threatening to others or themselves, another might not. In the movie Girl Interrupted, for example, the main character was forced to stay in the institution because she swallowed a bottle of aspirin and drank a bottle of wine with it. The doctors in the hospital were not accomplishing anything with their treatments, and were forcing medications upon her that really were not helping her. During the movie it becomes obvious that the friendships and unity formed between the girls of the institution helped the overcoming of the problems that faces them and their possibilities for de-institutionalization more than help from doctors and nurses. The feeling of belonging and outspokenness concerning the girls’ problems that occurred in such things as group meetings, led to deeper thought about and assistance in the overcoming of each individuals’ problems. In the film’s conclusion we see that the friends that individuals make during their stay at an institution become lifelong friends, or at least, and if not that than people who will never be forgotten because of the impact that they have had on each others’ lives. The Susanna Kaysen character in the film wrote in a journal about her stay in the mental institution, and in this journal she wrote as well about the girls that were stuck in the hospital with her. Susanna Kaysen in reality published the memoir Girl Interrupted, which was made into the dramaic film that was released for the world to see.

The film suggests that the mentally ill would be just as well off within society, if not better, and authorities support this conclusion. “The vast majority of people remain supportive of the integration of those with mental illness into the community” (Public Attitudes). Being allowed to stay at home or in group living situations and be supported by their families or living groups would be far more beneficial than the separation in most cases (Public Attitudes). Participating in society, forming relationships with others, and doing things that make themselves feel useful and needed could make the disquieting thoughts running through their brains seem not so terrible, as when being shunned by society. This may not be true in all cases; there are times when the patients are so pessimistic or so out of touch with reality that there is little hope for them to function successfully out in the free world. In this case, the best place for the person may be in a mental institution.

Another problem with institutionalization is that the stigmas placed on the mentally ill, especially those institutionalized, are debilitating and degrading. “Stigma deprives people of their dignity and interferes with their full participation in society” (Granerud). Fear of being looked down upon or being seen as different causes people to shy away from obtaining help, and causes them to hate themselves more. But society is slowly accepting the mentally ill as members of the same community. “Public attitudes towards people with mental health problems remain broadly sympathetic despite some signs that prejudice and fear have slightly increased” (Public Attitudes). Public understanding of mental illnesses was aided by the media through productions of films based upon psychiatric issues, and through articles written about different mental problems. Fears of the mentally ill have been reduced thanks to development of various medicines that are used to control and manage those patients that are prescribed these medications. The American public has benefited from public educational programs, and these programs have brought out that there are a large number of people that have had some sort of personal experience with mental illnesses. Knowledge is the key to understanding and acceptance.

“Between 1946 and 1963, federal officials sought to change the national practice of providing mental health care, away from state run mental institutions and toward outpatient care based in local communities” (Weiss). The policies were based off of two policy instruments, ideas and inducements. The research that led to these changes provided evidence that mental institutions were not providing the amount of help that they were believed to bring. “The evaluation of a treatment model that makes use of the community to help mentally ill patients acquire necessary coping skills…is based on high readmission rates to mental hospitals” (Stein). “Mental health advocates and family members have joined together to reduce blame and stigma, share experiences and advice, gain mutual support, and fight for improvements in benefits for the long term disabled” (Goldman). This being said, mental institutions are moving more and more in the direction of being a scene of the past. Keep the mentally troubled where it they can be best cared for and most improved.

Works Cited

• Goldman, Howard H. “Mental Illness and Family Burden: A Public Health Perspective”. Hosp Community Psychiatry. Jul 1982. 4 Pgs. American Psychiatric Association. 27 Oct 2007. http://psychservices.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/33/7/557
• Granerud, Arild, and Elisabeth Severinsson. “Preserving Integrity: experiences of people with mental health problems living in their own home in a new neighborhood”. Hedmark University College. Nursing Ethics. Vol. 10, No. 6. 28 Oct 2007. http://nej.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/10/6/602
• Kaysen, Susanna, and James Mangold. “Girl Interrupted”. Film. 14 January 2000.
  “Public Attitudes Towards Mental Illness Remain Broadly Sympathetic”. Max Health. 27 Oct 2007. http://www.emaxhealth.com/7/13712.html
• Shah, S. A. “Dangerousness and civil commitment of the mentally ill: some public policy considerations”. American Journal Psychiatry. 1975. American Psychiatric Association. 28 Oct 2007
• Stein, L.I., M. A. Test, and B. A. Weisbrod. “Alternative to mental hospital treatment. II. Economic benefit-cost analysis”. Arch Gen Psychiatry. Apr 1980. 6 Pgs. Jama&Archives. 27 Oct 2007. “http://archpsyc.amaassn.org/cgi/content/abstract/37/4/400″>
• Weiss, Janet A. “Ideas and Inducements in Mental Health Policy”. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. Vol. 9, No. 2. 28 Oct 2007.http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0276-8739(199021)9%3A2%3C178%3AIAIIMH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-X”>

Julian Schnabel is the director of Before Night Falls. He uses colors and the rich, aesthetically pleasing scenery of Cuba to make the story of Cuban poet and novelist Reinaldo Arenas come alive. “Style is what an artist uses to fascinate the beholder in order to convey to him his feelings and emotions and thoughts. These are what have to be dramatized, not the style. The dramatizing has to find a style of its own, as it will do if it really grasps the content” (Beja 80). Schnabel chooses specific settings, textures, sounds, angles, and actors to bring the feelings and emotions of the novel into the film. From seeing and understanding the passions of Arenas, Schnabel is able to make his dramatic rendition of Arenas’ life unfold as a truly unique and artistic film.

What types of books make good films? It is difficult to say. When a novel of extraordinary length is turned into a two-hour movie, much of the dialogue and many of the inner thoughts of the main character will have to be cut out. A shorter story would be much easier to turn into a movie, but because Before Night Falls is based on a full length novel, and many details in the content of the novel must necessarily be left out, the film version of Before Night Falls compensates by adding visual images that are worth many words. The film utilizes other artistic forms as well, for example, Arenas’ poetry. The poems are read by the actor portraying Arenas (Javier Bardeem, now starring in the Coen brothers’ critical success, No Country for Old Men, 2007) using a voice-over technique, while visual images reflect the power and the beauty of the poems’ messages.

When adapting a novel for film, the decision must be made to make omissions. In Before Night Falls there had to be, the words of one critic, a “censoring and editing in the name of moral, economic, and political righteousness”(Golden 80). Homosexuality is a very controversial topic, so all Arenas’ detailed erotic adventures with other men were left out. Instead scenes are cut so the audience sees two men start to get closer or begin to kiss just before a black out. Also, the movie could not detail the political history of Cuba forefronting Arenas’ political opinions. Instead of focusing on what Arenas believed and why, the film shows how Cuba’s political unrest affected Arenas and changed his life. Close-ups of the characters’ faces are used in situations that occur because of political corruption to demonstrate the emotional impact of injustice. One scene that shows how the government’s power harms the peasants is short and without dialogue, so, though the message is demonstrated telegraphically in this scene, the audience may miss the complete truth. Arenas and numerous other writers and professional men and women were sent into the sugar cane fields by the government to help reach Castro’s goal to harvest ten million tons of sugarcane. Arenas was sent to one of those places that was like, in the writer’s own words, “entering the last circle of hell” (Arenas 129). The sugarcane leaves were sharp and caused unbearable itching on one’s skin. Instead of this more detailed description, the film’s shot shows a burning field and then pans in for the audience to see Reinaldo and Tomas, dirty, bloody, and sweaty as they take part in this forced fields’ project. The drive for wanting these ten million tons of sugar cane harvested came from Castro’s desire to make Cuba a power in the world. Documentary footage of both Castro’s speeches and the actions of Cuban rebels convey Cuba’s political history. This is a good example of the way the film, while staying true to key events, uses the power of visual images based on documentary and literary sources to tell the story of Arenas and of Cuba during this historical period.

Before Night Falls is a faithful film adaptation. The core events are directly adapted from the book to the movie. The chronology of the story remains the same as we follow Arenas’ life from his childhood to the time he leaves to join the rebels at age fourteen. Arenas matures, and his innate abilities as a writer develop as he goes to the university and later works at the national library. During this time, his social life flourishes, and he enjoys being both a homosexual and a writer. Later, however, Arenas becomes a prisoner because he was framed as being a molester by two young boys. Arenas is imprisoned at Morro Castle for two years. What he valued most during this time, he says, was his “friends, some of whom had taken great risks on my account” (Arenas 179). Because of government spies being everywhere, one could not always be sure who was still a friend. Arenas lived here and there after he got out of prison, and finally he was able to go to America.

In the U.S. Arenas’ life was better for a time. He enjoyed the company of his friend Lázaro, and Arenas’ writing was not censored, but completing his work became a problem. Arenas lived to write but his health diminished as AIDS and several other health problems took a toll on his body. When he became too sick to write, Arenas decided to commit suicide. His life was amazing in that he survived near fatal illnesses in his childhood, dangerous experiences while he was a fugitive, and in sickness later in life, yet after his long and twisted journey, he chose to end his own life. All the important events in Arenas’ life are covered in the novel and in the film. The novel uses words. The film portrays the life in visual and verbal images, and it is startling and often interesting to see how it accomplishes this translation.

So how were these main events in Arenas’ life transformed to the screen? The process can be summed up as “visual… to convey images” (Giddings 1). Bardeem plays Reinaldo Arenas, his acting skills visually portray the feeling and emotions Arenas emphasized in his writing. Analyzing scenes from the film, audiences can easily enter the world of Arenas’ story of life, love, pain, and writing.

The film opens in the luscious green of a forest. We see the baby Reinaldo carried by his mother as his voice over (as an adult) explains what it was like growing up on his grandparents’ farm. We see him in a dirt crib. The audience sees that Reinaldo is a peasant living in extreme poverty. An emotional connection is established as well so that the audience empathizes with Reinaldo’s situation. The film then goes into a scene revealing the only time Reinaldo ever saw his father. In this scene a man hands the boy two pesos, while the mother across the river screams at the top of her lungs at the man. After this demonstration of the lack of a manly influence in his life, the movie’s shot goes to a river by which Reinaldo is sitting, and then we hear another voice-over. This time it is a poem about water and how it influenced Reinaldo’s life. He felt himself one with nature, and we see Reinaldo carving poetry on trees and happily watching nude men in the water. This telegraphs Reinaldo’s early emergence as a homosexual, and shows us rather than tells us that he is attracted to men at a young age. The film later shows Reinaldo fantasizing about another little boy his age. Arenas feels a connection to the boy that is not returned. Later Reinaldo walks down an empty stretch of road that looks even emptier as the camera pans away. Reinaldo was going to join the rebels with his friend, but now he is all alone. Figurative language from the novel is translated into visual images in the film. We see loneliness and isolation.

“Probably the most common distinction [between books and movies] is one that sees the novel as more appropriate to the presentation of inner mental status, while the film is seen as being better able to show what people do and say than what they think or imagine” (Beja 57). In Before Night Falls, Arenas demonstrates his opinions and the opinions of others in great detail. The film renders these opinions in different ways. A scene shows Reinaldo in the University learning political propaganda. He does not say he disagrees with the doctrine but he enters a writing contest. The shot of him writing cuts to a flashback of the story he is imagining, and then the scene ends with Arenas telling his story to the judges. The result is he gets a job at the National Library. We later learn that because he has this job, Reinaldo is able to read and write whatever he wants. If he had not entered the contest, Reinaldo would have worked a regulated job under the eyes of the government. The audience learns of Arenas true political views when he associates with Señor San Marino, who lends Arenas some books from his own library that would have been censored by the government. Señor San Marino calls the books “bibles.” San Marino has an editor friend who helps Arenas re-work and publish his book. Reinaldo had minimal schooling, so his writing style was very raw. He told stories without using punctuation, organization, or complete thoughts. The editing really helped and shaped his writing. He was able to publish his first book in Cuba. The film allows one action to lead to another action, which demonstrates the opinions of Arenas and his friends. In the cases shown above, Reinaldo’s decision to enter the writing contest affects his career, social life, political knowledge, and published book. In this sense, the film is able to show actions rather than inner thoughts, which are emphasized in the memoirs.

“For a film to be an adequate rendition of a novel, it must not only present the actions and events of the novel, but also capture the attitudes and subjective tones toward those events” (Giddings 14). “Attitudes and subjective tones” of uneasiness and suspicion are demonstrated in a scene where Arenas meets with Jorge and Margarita Camacho, a painter and his wife who live in Paris. Reinaldo is told that they are friends of San Marino. Reinaldo arrives at the Hotel Internacional, and Jorge identifies Reinaldo, probably by his clothing that is decidedly not glamorous like the people who usually stay at the International Hotel. Reinaldo sticks out in the ritzy hotel and looks uncomfortable there. As the Camachos and Arenas converse, Reinaldo gets closer and asks if they may speak in French. Reinaldo is not as comfortable speaking French as the Camachos are, but he feels safer not being overheard mentioning concentration camps and homosexuals. The camera alternates between close-ups and long shots, and visually reinforces the unease of Reinaldo in the scene, accentuating the atmosphere of fear. After the meeting, Reinaldo runs home to retrieve his precious manuscript in the two hours he has to get it to Jorge at the airport. Jorge had read Reinaldo’s autobiography about his childhood, and he and his wife want to help Reinaldo in any way they can. More than anything else in his life, Reinaldo values his writing and publishing his work and the Camachos have agreed to get his manuscript published in France.

The edgy scene where Arenas’ manuscript is exchanged is set in the José Martí airport is just one example of the ways things are set up visually and in the mis en scene to create a feeling of danger and tension. In this scene there are about as many policemen as people. It is important that the audience identifies with Arenas’ dangers as he strives to publish his work. As one critic notes, “The point of view of the camera can change many times during a narrative; also cutting and editing can cause frequent and extreme shifts in perspective.” Depth of field, focus, and zooms set a scene’s mood (Giddings 15). Cutting to different shots in the scene where Arenas’ attempts to flee Cuba on an inner tube create a trapped and lost mood, while the bird’s eye angle of the camera adds to the feelings of hopelessness in this the dark, wet scene. At the end of this sequence Arenas emerges alone, shivering, and still in Cuba. And now the camera still uses high angles as Reinaldo attempts to commit suicide. As he breaks the glass bottle, the camera seems to shake the entire shot. Unsteady cutting continues as Reinaldo is dragged into prison after this sequence. He had taken hallucinogenic pills, and the camera movement goes partially camera subjective to supplement the other ways we understand how Reynaldo is feeling as his freedom is completely taken away as the drugs take him into another world. The technical elements in filmmaking are necessary in the dramatic scenes, such as this, where the main character is at one of his lowest points.

“While the novel is a narrative that deploys past events moving towards a present, a film directly displays the present” (Giddings 17). This is especially true towards the end of Before Night Falls. Reinaldo suffers from AIDS. He has no insurance, so he cannot get basic medical care. This is happening in the present. Arenas comes to America and is at first healthy and strong. In the present tense the film shows him as his health degrades. His poems are used again toward the end of the film to show his insights as he looks from the present time back at his life in retrospect. Eventually Reinaldo gets so weak that he can’t write. He lies on the couch and struggles to lift a glass to his lips. His death is the final moment of a present-tense action in the film. It is important for a movie to be told in present tense—but in delicate balance with the past and Reinaldo’s life story. The audience can connect with what is happening now, look back at the writer’s travails, and anticipates what’s to come in the movie’s own special present tense.

Though most of the novel is faithfully translated, there are scenes in Before Night Falls that have little basis in events described by the novel. These choices seem to be for scenes that add more action and adversity to the film. During the time that Arenas is working at the national library, he spends an afternoon with his friend Tomas who works on a tour bus. The bus makes a stop. Up until now it seems like a fenced-in party with dancing and drinking and frivolity, but suddenly, the police show up breaking into the party and violence ensues. As people are beaten and fall to the ground, all that is heard is the sound is music and Arenas’ voice-over followed by another speech by Castro where he tells about the evils of homosexuals. Violent events of this nature were common in Cuba and the film portrays them ironically. This event does not correlate directly to an event in the book, but it demonstrates the types of hardships many Cubans endured during this time when they did not have basic freedoms or rights. Another added scene follows Reinaldo Arenas’ release from prison. In the novel, his friend Blanca Rimero lives next to the convent of Santa Clara. She wanted a window, but the wall her friends opened up led into the abandoned convent and not to the street, so everything Blanca, Reynaldo, and their friends found inside, from statues to furnishings, they could sell on the black market. In the movie they put some parachutes together making a hot air balloon to “sail to Miami.” The plan was for Blanca and two others to fly. They have a party, and as they recover the balloon is crashed by Reinaldo’s nemesis Pepe, who dies in the crash. This hot air balloon scene never appears in the novel, but it embraces the theme of the desire to fly away from Cuba’s troubles. The scene also allows for beautiful Cuban scenery as it shows Pepe’s feeling of achieving the ultimate freedom. As the brightly colored balloon ascends higher and higher and the music gets louder, it is hard not to believe that this scene was mostly added for artistic effects with sweeping camera movements sure to make the audience’s hearts’ leap. After all, the film is being directed by a painter on the life of a poet!

The film’s strengths may also be its weaknesses. I think the “artistic” and “image” sometimes overcome the storytelling. I believe the film is a fabulous celebration of a tremendous life, but the novel goes into much more detail about Reynaldo’s feelings, the details of his life, the country’s history, and lessons in love and life he learned along the way. Still, the film is a successful faithful adaptation because it takes the core concepts of the novel and visually and artistically converts them into a movie. The film contains the themes and moods of the novel, yet portrays them in its own unique fashion, using the language of film.

Works Cited

• Arenas, Reinaldo. Before Night Falls. English ed.. New York: Penguin Books, 1993.
• Arenas, Reinaldo. Old Rosa. First ed.(English). New York: Grove Press, 1989.
• Aycock, Wendell, and Michael Schoenecke. Film and Literature: A Comparative Approach to Adaptation. Lubbock Texas: Texas Tech University Press, 1988.
• Before Night Falls. Dir. Julian Schnabel. Perf. Javier Bardem, Oliver Martinez, Andrea Di Stafano, Johnny Depp, Michael Wincott. DVD. New Line Home Entertainment, 2000.
• Beja, Morris. Film and Literature. New York: Longman Inc., 1979
• Cohen, Keith. Film and Literature. London: Yale University Press, 1979.
• Giannetti, Louis D. Understanding Movies. 2. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., 1976
• Giannetti, Louis. Understanding Movies. 11th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.
• Giddings, Robert, Keith Selby, and Chris Wensley. Screening the Novel. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1990.
• Golden, Leon. Transformations in Literature and Film. Tallahassee Florida: University Presses of Florida, 1982.
• Ocasio, Rafael. A Gay Cuban Activist in Exile: Reinaldo Arenas. Gainesville, Fl: University Press of Florida, 2007.
• Ocasio, Rafael. Cuba’s Political and Sexual Outlaw: Reinaldo Arenas. Gainesville, Fl.: University Press of Florida, 2003.
• Soto, Francisco. Reinaldo Arenas. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1998.
• Soto, Francisco. Reinaldo Arenas: La Pentagonia. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, 1994.

Written by Alan Ball, who also made his mark working on the HBO series Six Feet Under, the Internet Movie Database outlines the film by stating:

“Lester Burnham is in a mid-life crisis, caused by his stressed wife Carolyn and rebelling teen-age daughter Jane. When Lester and Carolyn go to watch Jane cheerleading, they meet Angela Hayes, and Lester, caught in sudden lust for Angela, decides to change his life. Angela’s and Jane’s friendship is not all it seems, too, because Angela only brags about how many times she’s “done it” with other men. That doesn’t help an already insecure Jane very much but she finds solace in the arms of the next-door-neighbors’ son, Ricky Fitts. Ricky, himself from a broken home as well, and Jane find they have a lot in common and eventually turn out to be soul mates.”

As the protagonist, Lester appears to have made the biggest transformation by the end of the film. This change is brought about by his interactions with three other people in his life: his wife, his daughter’s best friend, and his daughter’s boyfriend. His wife is the initial catalyst for of his character change. Until his metamorphosis begins, Carolyn places herself on a pedestal, dominating the lives of her family while Lester fades into the background (Newman). “What a man can be, he must be. This need we may call self-actualization” states Maslow (1970, 18), and this statement relates directly to Lester. The only control that Lester exerts during the exposition of the film is his morning habit of masturbating in the shower. The fact Lester can only satisfy himself in this manner shows his control lies only at the base of Maslow’s “pyramid” where physiological needs are considered beyond that realm of having no control.

For the most part, argues Maslow, the need or desire for a stable, firmly based, (usually) high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and for the esteem of others is present in most functioning members of society (1970, 21). In American Beauty most of the characters have problems emotionally connecting with others and deteriorating relationships are present throughout (Lester and Jane, Lester and Carolyn, The Fitts’ in general, Angela and Jane) (Newman). Lester is quite aware of these facts, and his dissatisfaction about his present state motivates him to “be what he could be” after he begins to desire Angela.

Carolyn controls the plateau of “Safety Needs.” Issues like protection, security, order, law, limits, and stability are addressed here and her controlling nature encompasses all of these things in the film, down to the very music that the Burnhams listen to during dinner. This is where Lester makes his first efforts towards satisfying his needs. The Burnham patriarch begins to assert his role in the relationship by subtly changing parts of himself. The next level of the Hierarchy, “Love Needs” plays a part in this turning point of the film. When Lester meets Angela he finds new purpose in life, to better himself and gain her acceptance. Angie is someone who appears to be interested in Lester. She is the first person in the film to speak to him and about him like a human being. Her outward appearance of perfection is the antithesis of what surrounds him in everyday life, and Mendes begins to create cinematic montages for the illusions in Lester’s mind where he fantasizes about making love to Angela. For a time, Angela’s alien beauty is all that Lester can think about, and after he overhears her comments to Jane about liking him more if he had more muscle, Lester begins an intensive workout regimen. His starting this routine is also a visual show of his reclamation of manhood. Angie also stands in contrast to Carolyn, who is demanding, conceited, and past her prime. While Angela begins to stimulate his almost-forgotten libido and the “love needs” that Lester lacks, he gains a new neighbor who begins to date his daughter and serves as a “role-model” (albeit an unhealthy one) of Self-Actualization.

Ricky serves as a pseudo-brother/son to Lester, and the former melancholic views the interactions with the artistic youth and the others as catalysts for his own developmental journey to find happiness in his life. It does not take long before Lester finds that the most pleasing things to him are things that were a part of childhood. He quits his pointless office job and goes back to work at a fast food restaurant similar to the one from his youth. There he finds that he has responsibilities again, and it is evident that his hard work earns him achievements. These new decisions can be classified as “Esteem needs,” where reputation and status also fall. The purchase of a Trans-Am, the dream car of his younger days, acts to re-enforce his idea of “status” as it relates to his childhood goals.

Lester is protective of his newfound place in life, especially as it regards Carolyn, who by this point is addressing her own needs (per usual) for affection by sleeping with another realtor. She convinces herself that being around someone as powerful as the “Real Estate King” Buddy King vicariously empowers her to re-establish control over her life and the lives of Jane and Lester. This bliss is short-lived, however; the relationship with Buddy and her regained attitude crumbles quickly once the pair is caught while ordering food at Lester’s drive-though. Despite Lester’s understanding and lack of anger, Carolyn ignores him, believing that he has taken power away from her. Her overactive control needs drive her to plan his murder. This is an extreme method of re-establishing her dominance in her relationship.

By this point in the film Lester has addressed most of his needs from Physiological to Esteem, though he has still not experienced self-actualization. Angela runs into Lester while he is taking a break in the kitchen from working out, and she remarks on how fit he appears, much to the disgust of Jane, who overhears. Seizing upon the opportunity that he has been waiting to present itself the entire film, Lester begins to address one of his last unresolved needs; the same one that helped set the other changes in motion and the one that he believes will offer self-actualization. When he discovers that Angela is a virgin though, he abstains from potentially scarring her and they instead discuss the state of his daughter. He is delighted to find that she is in love. Maslow describes moments like this as a “Peak experience”. He goes on to elaborate that these experiences are transient moments of self-actualization (1971, p.48).

Lester reflects on his life and interactions with his wife and daughter, thinking about how the thing that made him the happiest was the will to love his family. Using the theory of Self-Actualization, any experience of real excellence and perfection, like the one at this point in the movie, tends to produce a peak experience (Maslow 1971, p. 175.) Ricky’s father enters their house, prepared to murder Lester because he fears his own homosexuality after revealing it to Lester and thinking he will reveal the Colonel’s secret. The last thing that Lester sees is a picture of his family, happy and caring, before the trigger is pulled. For Maslow, the highest peaks include “feelings of limitless horizons opening up to the vision, the feeling of being. Simultaneously more powerful and also more helpless than one ever was before, the feeling of great ecstasy and wonder and awe, the loss of placing in time and space” (1970, 164). Symbolic of Maslow’s description, the film closes with a flyover shot of the city and suburbs where the families live while Lester addresses the audience about how it feels to die.

Watching Sam Mendes’ film American Beauty, the viewer witnesses the transformation of Lester Burnham from an empty man possessing little more than the thoughts in his head, to being a self-actualized individual using the parameters suggested by Abraham Maslow. Lester used the people in his life to further himself despite the intentions of some to limit him. Though his death at the end of the film is anti-climactic, the viewer should keep in mind that Lester passed in a state of peace and fulfillment.

References

• Maslow, Abraham. “A Theory of Human Motivation” Psychological Review, 50. 370-396. Scribd. 2007. 11 Nov 2007.
• Maslow, Abraham. The Farther Reaches of Human Nature. New York: Viking Press, 1971.
• Maslow, Abraham. Motivation and Personality (rev. ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1970.
• Newman, Jeff. “American Beauty Analysis.” Screenwriting. 2000. 18 Oct, 2007.
• “American Beauty” International Movie Database. 2007. 12 Nov. 2007.

The readers who have seen this film may have an idea of what kind of article they are about to read. For those that have not, The Believer (2004) is not a film to be taken lightly. Violence, hatred, and death are frequent visitors to the story. On the other hand, this is a film that deals with the complexities of the human mind and soul. The Believer is riddled with ideas both internal and external, of both love and of hate, and of acceptance and violence.

The Believer is about a young orthodox Jewish man, Danny Balint, who despite his upbringing, becomes a member of a Neo-Nazi organization. His hatred is never fully explained, and allusions to events in his childhood only seem to raise more questions. Upon reading many movie critiques, and looking over discussion boards posted on the film’‘s official website, many people seem to find the subtleties in the plot too confusing, and argue that the story has holes (Parker). Maybe that’s how it is supposed to be though. Perhaps in writing The Believer, Henry Bean and Mark Jacobson didn’t want to answer questions about the darkest parts of human nature, but to ask them.

The cryptic and sometimes borderline offensive nature of the film seems to fit very well with the events upon which it was based. The character of Danny Balint is an analogy for the real life Daniel Burros. Daniel Burros was a former Nazi turned Klu Klux Klan member who, in 1965, was revealed by the press to be of Jewish descent. The night the article was printed, Daniel Burros committed suicide. The movie may not follow these actual events to the letter, but this is what the author cites as his inspiration, and many parallels are evident. The biggest of these parallels is the self hatred, but more resemblances follow, such as Danny and the real life Daniel being influential members of extremely right wing organizations, and the fact that they were both hiding everything about themselves from the people around them.

One of the questions that the writers could be raising is this: “How could an individual (in this case Danny Balint) hate and reject his own culture and people with so much passion?” The answer is not clear cut, but throughout the film he seems to point out Jewish stereotypes, especially that of the quiet mannered and submissive Jew. Danny hates the fact that Jews, in many people’s eyes, don’t ever stand up for themselves. He even used the story of Abraham to illustrate his thought on this point when he was still very young. his shows that he was aware, albeit subconsciously, of these stereotypes even as a child. It stands, though, that The Believer is a film grounded in reality, and the stereotypes present in the film are real issues.

It is interesting how stereotypes permeate the culture around us. But how exactly do they start, and what makes them popular enough to be passed down through generations? One idea is Henry Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory. He proposed that as a part of normal growth and development, people start to notice and stress differences. Because of this, people tend to glorify many of the traits groups they belong to posses, and tend to look down on groups of people that are different from themselves. This raises self esteem, but also causes prejudice and stereotypes to arise (Fukai 1). Most people will agree that we as human beings have persecuted each other throughout history, and this is definitely one possible source of stereotypes. Someone notices something small about another race, religion, or sex, and escalates it into something they can poke fun at. Others within the same social group would probably play along with the jokes, even if they are in bad taste, and as time passes, these “jokes” are heard so much they become a part of our culture. Others have argued that many stereotypes are created as a means of retaliation. For example, the persecuting race may feel insecure or dissatisfied about some aspect of of their own lives, and so they look for someone else to blame. Many psychologists have argued that scapegoating other groups helps us compensate mentally for our insecurities.

Regardless of their origin, it is a fact that stereotypes exist in many different forms, and for every single ethnicity. Italians, for example, are thought to have a very strong sense of family and community, and are wary of outsiders. Many believe that Asians are the smartest race, while other races may be less intelligent Blacks are foten thought to be more gifted athletically. While any one of these may be true about a number of people, not every member of those races adhere to those stereotypes. This article though, will deal primarily with stereotypes directed against the Jews.

One of the most common of the Jewish stereotypes is that all Jews inherently posses money making skills (Helmreich 13). This is a very old stereotype, which may account in part for its widespread popularity. Shakespeare even fueled this stereotype with The Merchant of Venice, indirectly stating that Jews are fueled by greed more so than other human beings. Danny Balint brings this up in The Believer in a scene in which he is asked what he hates about Jews. He claims that they sell themselves out for money and pleasure, and are, at heart, an a-moral people. Not surprisingly, there are no figures to show that Jews as a whole hold more money than any members of other races, and no one has proven that they guard the money they do have more greedily.

Another money related stereotype is that the Jews are in control of the financial systems and media (Helmreich 25, 33). The financial side of this may have stemmed from the middle ages, when many prominent Jewish men in society were encouraged to become money lenders, and therefore seemed to control much of the flow of money. The reason for this was that charging interest when lending money was frowned upon by the Christian church, and since the church was such a huge part of society in places such as Britain, going against the church’s teachings could easily get someone ostracized from society. Jews on the other hand, didn’t follow the same religion, and in a sense were already slightly separated from society. Monarchs, realizing this, and also realizing that someone in the society needed to take the position of a money lender, encouraged Jews to take up the positions. This way, the monarchs could keep society running smoothly while not blatantly violating integral parts of their beliefs. The media aspect could simply be an extension of this stereotype into more modern day times, since the media is something we see as in charge, just as money lenders have been in the past.

Probably the most relevant stereotype to this particular film is that Jews, as individuals and as a race, will not retaliate under attack (Parker). That many Jews are what we may call “push-overs.” Especially in today’s modern culture, with our notion’s of “looking out for number one” and standing up for personal freedoms, the thought of someone who can turn the other cheek in the face of oppression is almost a completely alien idea. Pertaining to the film, Danny seems particularly preoccupied with this stereotype. The opening scene depicts him following a young Jewish man and harassing him more and more openly. Finally, as the Jewish man appears to be leaving and escaping the situation, Danny confronts him in the street and punches him. Throughout this violent scene, Danny is begging the man to hit him back- to stand up for himself. When the man doesn’t, Danny furiously walks away. This seems to be one of Danny’s biggest problems with the Jewish culture, but ironically, it also seems to be a part of his life. For example, his father is not in very good condition, and needs people to take care of him;- weakness is one of the first things you notice about him. The only scene shown from his childhood is that of him fighting with a teacher about Jews being submissive, but, as stated earlier, the movie never truly clarifies where these feelings come from.

A final Jewish stereotype,- one that Danny himself possesses-, is that of the self-hating Jew. This one may have evolved simply from the creation of previous stereotypes and the stigmas surrounding being of Jewish descent. A lot of the feelings that seem to have influenced this stereotype are associated with Jews being indecisive and submissive. A particularly interesting sect born of this train of thought is the Zionists. Zionists are Jews that are “tired of being walked all over” and reject the submissive nature that seems to define them. They are called Zionists because they believe the Jews need to take back the holy land of Jerusalem, using whatever methods are necessary. Zionists would be much more open to the use of violence and military force in order to retaliate, or to hold what they consider to be rightfully theirs. There have even been reports of pro-Semitic graffiti in Nazi graveyards, supposedly by Zionists (“Nazi SS Cemetery“). Examples like this demonstrate that hate, directed inwardly or outwardly, can affect people from any background.

Danny Balint and Daniel Burros are both extremely bizarre cases, and because of this, are the subject of a large amount of interest. The human mind is an unbelievably baffling thing, and everyone’s is very, very different. We may never know why Danny and Daniel rejected their own cultures to the extent they did. We may also never know how they came to believe the stereotypes they did. In fact, we can’t even really tell how these stereotypes were created and ingrained in the minds of society. The fact remains though, that there are negative stereotypes about everything, from race to religion. Maybe the problem is not to deal with the origin of stereotypes, but to learn to deal with them today.

Works Cited:

• Fukai, Miyuki. “Applicability of Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory.” 1-8. 2 Dec 2007
• Helmreich, William B. The Things They Say Behind Your Back: Stereotypes and the Myths Behind Them. Transaction Publishers, 1986.
• “Nazi SS Cemetary Desecrated by Pro-Semitic Graffiti.” The Onion. 26 Aug 1998. Onion Inc.. 4 Nov 2007.
• Parker, James. “A Film Divided;Henry Bean’s The Believer tells the tale of a neo-Nazi — a skinhead who can’t quite cast off his own Jewishness.” LexisNexis Academic 15 July 2002 October 30 2007.
• Quinley, Harold E., and Charles Y. Glock. Anti-Semitism in America. Transaction Publishers, 1983
• Sofer, Roni. “The Holocaust – State of Israel Style 2005 – Neo-Nazi Organizations and Swastika Graffiti..” 04 May 2005. Pogrom.org.il. 3 Nov 2007
• Stoil, Rebecca Anna. “Man Suspected of Vandalizing Haifa Succa.” 07 Sept 2007. Pogrom.org.il. 20 Nov 2007 .

Cinema is filled with negative portrayals of mental illness and psychotherapy. Movies such as Girl, Interrupted and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest portray therapy in a very pessimistic light. Do these movies influence society in a positive or negative way? More specifically, do movies that send negative messages about therapy and mental illnesses influence teenagers? Are teens able to formulate their opinions and completely disregard media influence? Or, can they place these movies into perspective?

Research suggests people often form opinions of therapy from what they see in television and movies (Orchowski, 506). The same theory can be applied to what people generally know about mental illnesses. It has been suggested mental health “literacy” is very low among the general public, and they are unable to recognize many common types of psychological illnesses. Research by the American Psychological Association found while many people recognized the importance of therapy, they had little understanding of how to get help and little faith in the current system (Orchowski, 506). In the book Psychiatry and Cinema, the author Gabbard suggests the public’s perception of psychiatry and therapy was created in Hollywood. Over 450 films have a plot involving psychotherapy, and the majority of these films do not praise therapy in any way (Gabbard). Therapists in film have been portrayed in many ways. For the purpose of this study, I will be looking only at two types of portrayals: “the societal agent” and “the oracle” (Orchowski, 509).

The film One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest was made in the 70s during the height of the deinstitutionalization movement. During this movement, many patients were released to their families based on the belief that mental institutions caused more harm than good (‘Mental Illness’). So, when viewers watch One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest they see the ‘evil’ in the mental health system. The defining character in the film is Nurse Ratched; she represents the exploitation and greediness in the mental healthcare system. The therapists in this film fit the mold of the “societal agent.” They frequently force their patients to conform to what society sees as normal. If the patient refuses to fit into the ‘mold,’ then the therapist resorts to what viewers see as tortuous techniques (electroshock therapy, lobotomy, force feeding pills, etc.) (Orchowski, 506-509).

The therapist as an “oracle” is represented in the movie Girl, Interrupted. According to Gabbard, the therapist as an “oracle” will have some type of brilliant insight into the patient. In Girl, Interrupted, the therapist, Dr. Sonia Wick, seems to understand everything about Susanna and what she is going through. This portrayal is problematic because it encourages belief in magical cures for different types of psychological problems (Gabbard).

Previous Research

It is commonly recognized that there is a lot of stigma and prejudices surrounding people who have been diagnosed with mental illnesses. Many adults associate homelessness and schizophrenia together, and some employers are hesitant to hire people who have a history of certain types of mental illness. However, there is a presumption that young people are less prejudice towards people with mental illness (Schulze, 316). Because of this, there has been a push to counteract stereotypes before they arise or are reinforced in young adults. Young people arrive at their own opinions of mental illness based on personal experiences, but research has shown that young people rarely come in contact with people who are mentally ill (Schulze, 317). How then, do teens learn and form opinions about mental illness? Does the media (film, television, newspapers, etc.) influence teenagers opinion of mental illness and therapy?

Beate Schulze and Dr. Matthias C Angermeyer surveyed 293 secondary school children between the ages of 14-18 in Germany to explore their associations with the word schizophrenia. Students were not given any information about schizophrenia before they began the survey. Most students associated the word schizophrenia with an illness. Only 3.8% of the students used the words crazy or mad to characterize schizophrenia. The teenagers’ first associations with the word schizophrenia hardly ever reflected the stereotypical labels or characteristics assigned to it by the media

The purpose of this experiment is to determine if negative portrayals of mental illness in movies influence teenagers. Will teenagers be able to identify the difference between reality and film? Or, will they allow the negative stereotypes seen in film to influence their opinions on mental illnesses and therapy? Hopefully, the teens will be able to tell the difference between reality and fiction.

Methods

Participants

This study was conducted with 10 students from East Carolina University in Greenville, North Carolina. The students were between the ages of 17 and 18. Participants were chosen from a group of 15 males and females. Of the fifteen, only ten were available on the chosen night. Of these ten participants, six were male, and four were female. Two were from large cities, six were from suburban areas, and the remaining two were from small, rural towns. All participants were Caucasian, and all were American. Seven of the participants had either a family member or friend diagnosed with some type of mental illness. One participant had a diagnosed mental disorder, and one participant had no known contact with any person who had a mental illness. Of the ten participants, 2 had taken a psychology class in high school, and two were currently taking psychology courses.

Procedure

Each participant was given a set of four short answer questions before they were shown clips from two movies: Girl, Interrupted and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. The questionnaire asked three basic questions about mental illness: What were their thoughts on people with mental illnesses? Had they ever had any experience with mental illness? What did they know about therapy? Had they ever had any experience with any form of therapy? The questions were designed to detect any bias for or against therapy and the mentally ill before the participants watched the film clips.

Students were then shown a scene from the movie Girl, Interrupted and One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. The first scene they were shown was from Girl, Interrupted. It was entitled ‘Daisy.” During this scene, Susanna manages to calm Daisy down by trading laxatives for pain pills. From One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest the participants were shown the scenes from the group therapy session with Nurse Ratched to McMurphy’s electroshock therapy treatment.

Finally, each participant was given another set of short answer questions. There were only two questions asked on this questionnaire: What were their thoughts about mental illness? What were their thoughts about therapy? After filling out the last questionnaire, participants were given the opportunity to talk about their opinions of therapy and mental illness.

Results

Pre-test Questions

Associations with the mentally ill. Participants most frequently stated that the mentally ill were sick. The majority of the group felt that people with a mental illness were no different from people who had chronic illnesses such as diabetes or multiple sclerosis. Most people believed that the mentally ill could fully function in society with the proper therapy or medication. Only one participant expressed a negative opinion about people with mental illnesses.

When asked what their thoughts were about people who were mentally ill, most people used a specific illness in their answers. The most common mental illnesses mentioned were depression and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Most participants demonstrated a basic knowledge of some mental illnesses.

Knowledge of therapy. All of the participants had knowledge of therapy. Only four participants distinguished between different types of therapy. These participants mentioned types of therapy such as art therapy or behavioral therapy. Other participants’ ideas of therapy resembled what they had seen on television or movies. One participant even referenced the therapy that occurred in The Sopranos.

Post-test Questions

Reactions to Girl, Interrupted.
The majority of the participants felt that the character Susanna was not crazy. However, they felt that Daisy and Lisa were “insane.” Also, one-third of the participants felt that the hospital was portrayed fairly. The other participants thought that the hospital was not an accurate portrayal. They believed that mental hospitals are not as “laid back” as depicted in the film.

Nine of the participants stated that after watching the scene from Girl, Interrupted, their opinion of therapy and mental illness had not changed. One participant stated that he felt pity for the mentally ill. When shown the scene with Dr. Wick, two participants stated that Dr. Wick in no way represented a real psychologist. Three participants believed that she represented a real psychologist, and the other five participants stated that they had no experience with psychologists. Of the ten participants, eight stated that they would like to have a therapist like Dr. Wick.

Reactions to One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest. All participants felt that One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest was grossly exaggerated. One participant stated that, “I don’t believe they would give a patient electroshock therapy over a tiny argument.” All participants sympathized with McMurphy, and no one believed that he was “crazy.” Several participants believed that the situation in the hospital could occur in an actual state hospital.

All participants thought that Nurse Ratched symbolized “evil.” They all felt that she was pushing the patients to be “normal.” Most of the participants felt that the patients were not totally insane. One participant suggested that if each of the patients were given individual therapy, then they could have probably been released into society.

Final views of mental illnesses and psychology:
All participants stated that their final opinions of mental illness would ultimately come from either personal experience (i.e. meeting/getting to know a person with a mental illness) or reading from an informed source. None of the participants felt as if the movies in any way influenced their opinions of mental illness or psychology.

Discussion

After watching a scene from each movie, the participants seemed more receptive to the therapist portrayed in Girl, Interrupted. Overall, the group thought that Dr. Wick was more approachable. Dr. Wick fit the mold of ‘the oracle,” or the psychologist who had instant insight of the patient’s feelings and thoughts. They all felt as if this was a more acceptable type of therapist. However, most participants did acknowledge that the likelihood of having a “magical” therapist was very unlikely.

None of the participants thought that the type of therapy portrayed in One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest was appropriate. Everyone felt that the nurses and therapists were pushing the patients to be normal. One participant brought up the fact that the director and original author of One Flew Over the Cuckoo’s Nest wanted readers and viewers to feel that the mental health system and mental health professionals did not work properly.

Participants who were from large cities had the most open views of psychology. These participants felt that psychology was useful, and that it could really help people with mental illnesses. They also felt that people who had mental illnesses could easily be “cured.” But, the participants from small, rural areas were not as open-minded. Even though they admitted to having only minor contact with mentally ill individuals, they were not in favor of psychology. It was obvious that there was an enormous stigma attached with the word psychology. Even though they were not in favor of psychology, they still had fair opinions of mentally ill people.

Conclusion

Even though most participants had some form of contact with mentally ill people or a psychologist, they were still not totally informed about the amount of stigma that is attached to both. But, all participants based their opinions on what little information they had from books and personal experience, not from television and film.

Works Cited

• Orchowski, Lindsay M.. “Cinema and the Valuing of Psychotherapy: Implications for Clinical Practice.” Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 37(2006): 506-514.
• Marsden, Gerald. “Children’s Social Judgemnets Concerning Emotionally Disturbed Peers.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 45(1977): 948.
• Schulze, Beate. “What Is Schizophrenia? Secondary School Students’ Associations With the World and Sources of Information About the Illness.” American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 75(2005): 316-323.
• Marshall, Elizabeth. “Borderline Girls: Mental Illness, Adolescence, and Femininity in Girl, Interrupted.” The Lion and the Unicorn 30(2006): 117-133.
• O’Brien Hochman, Linda. “Age and Its Effect on Perceptions of Psychopathology.” Psychology and Aging 1(1986): 337-338.
• Roy, Paul G.. “Older Adults’ Perceptions of Psychopathology.” Psychology and Aging 4(1989): 369-371.
• LaTorre, Ronald A.. “Gender and Age as Factors in the Attitudes Towards Those Stigmatized as Mentally Ill.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 43(1975): 97-98.
• Gabbard, Glen O.. Psychiatry and Cinema. 2nd ed. Washington D.C.: American Psychiatric Press, 1999.
• “Mental Illness.” MSN Encarta. Encarta. 8 Nov 2007 .

Throughout time racist America has used “cultural symbols, tendencies, values, beliefs, patterned ways of thinking and feeling” to deal with the prejudices toward African Americans. Spike Lee’s film, “Do The Right Thing” makes obvious the reality and consequences of the intolerance different ethnic groups experience while still cohabitating within one borough of a city. The film brilliantly illustrates the struggles of each character to identify with music, clothing, and community institutions such as the Italian owned pizzeria, the Korean food market and the African American radio station, and also through language and cultural slang.

Historically, minorities have been discriminated against in American society in every generation. Each new immigrant group can become a target for the established majority to pass judgment on; however, African Americans have often maintained the brunt of these prejudices. African Americans have a legacy of slavery in their forced migration to America, and this makes them different from other groups. The oppression African Americans endured has resulted in an African diaspora where people can identify with each other but not with a locality, as African Americans, with rare exceptions, do not know where they came from in Africa. Spike Lee’s film, “Do The Right Thing” graphically illustrates the diasporic struggle of African Americans, their need for cultural identity, and compares two differing approaches, that of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X, to solving the problem of African American cultural, and political, identity.

The cultural psychology of African Americans has generated a multidimensional cultural structure in America. This structure incorporates the progression of behaviors, feelings and thoughts of African Americans as they have experienced racism in the United States. TRIOS is a phrase representing the “cultural foundation of an African legacy for African-Americans and provides a means of coping with slavery and various forms of racism over time” (Jones, TRIOS: A Psychological Theory of the African Legacy in American Culture,” 2003). TRIOS is an acronym for Time, Rhythm, Improvisation, Orality, and Spirituality. Evidence for the components of TRIOS can be seen through many African and Caribbean cultural elements. These elements include oral traditions within a familial context, clothing, music, the art of improvisation and a unique Afro-centric perception of time. Similar to their ancestors, African Americans have a skill in story telling, a need for attire representing their foundation and roots in Africa, and the talents to craft the musical genres of jazz, hip hop and rap. These are all elements of culture that have been produced predominantly by African Americans.

Typically, African Americans do not view time as linear. They “live in the moment” seeing time as a circular evolution, using seasonal annual religious beliefs to support a lifestyle, which comes out of this sense of time. The cultural interaction for African Americans within this circular time sense provides an organizing framework for their cultural psychology and has helped developed their identity in America (Jones, “Toward a cultural psychology of African Americans” 2002).

Examples of African Americans being proud of their synthetic culture can be seen through the film industry. Two African American characters in “Do The Right Thing,” Buggin’ Out and Radio Raheem wear African emblems around their necks identifying Africa in the continents colors; red, yellow and green. Buggin’ Out’s shoe laces are also woven with red, yellow and green threading. These are examples of symbolism for the characters to further develop a cultural identity amongst each other. The cultural psychology of African Americans is to unite as one group using the tools they encompass from their African roots without actually having experienced the continent of Africa and witnessing the various African cultures firsthand. Even something as simple as the colors of a pair of shoelaces, as represented in the Spike Lee film, can show how African Americans have established their own culture in America emulating African influences.

African Americans can be characterized by their diversity in experiences around other cultural belief and symbols. An undersized example of this is how Sal’s famous pizzeria has been in the neighborhood for many years. Sal makes comments to his eldest son on how he has witnessed kids grow up in the neighborhood and how they have grown up eating his pizza. The Italian culture represented in the pizzeria could be the most amount of Italian culture some of the African American customers will ever be exposed to allowing them the opportunity to absorb the symbols established by the pizzeria owner and his sons. There is evidence the Africans who came to America had a more coherent cultural system than many believe (Jones, “Toward a cultural psychology of African Americans” 2002). Dr. Festus Eribo, a professor for the School of Communication at East Carolina University commented on this phenomenon by stating: “It doesn’t matter which country they come from because they are all black Africans.” This synthetic commonality had led to a durable cultural identity amongst African Americans due to the historical subjugation the race as a whole has endured. They have had to master the white man’s culture, and religion, but they have maintained their own roots and connections to their African cultural identity.

The diasporic struggles African Americans have suffered and the need for solid unity are reflected in the film. An African American community is represented within the cauldron of racism and economic deprivation in the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn. The summer’s heat further illuminates the highly contentious and “heated” discussion by African Americans among themselves and of the suffering African Americans have tolerated as a result of racism in American society.

Often times, when African Americans visit Africa they are idolized by African citizens because they believe the African Americans come from a more “sophisticated, knowledgeable country.” Professor Eribo stated “Black Americans are worshiped” in Africa. The obvious divide in most African countries involves the economic status of the individual, not the color of their skin, as opposed to the United States where many people are prejudiced against those who do not appear Caucasian. It is much easier to identify someone as being a minority in the United States because of their skin color rather because they hold a lower economic status.

Americans strive for identity and individualism but by doing so they often ignore the inequalities between race and economic status. Diversity fails to offer true social justice when there are inherent and structural inequalities between ethnicities. Categorizing a group of people by pigeonholing them as lower in the socioeconomic classifications benefits those who embrace a multiculturalism, which does not hinder their own status in society (Michaels, 2006). The store owners in “Do the Right Thing,” for example, are both Korean and Italian in a predominantly African American community. “What makes the notion of economic diversity look ridiculous is also what makes it look so attractive; it reassures us that the problem of poverty is like the problem of race and that the way to solve it is by appreciating rather than minimizing our differences” (Michaels, 2006).

The divide between the socioeconomic echelons are illustrated in the film, by one group who prospers and lives off another. The Italian family trio comprised of Sal, Pino, and Vito drive up to Sal’s Famous Pizzeria in the beginning of the film. In another scene a Caucasian man drives through the community in an apparent “antique” vehicle. Throughout the film the only characters who drive are Caucasian. The African American characters walk and run to wherever they need to go during the film.

An African American character who is further oppressed in the film, and seems to always be under pressure, social and economic, is Mookie, the main African American character who in many ways ties the film together. Pino, the eldest Italian son derides Mookie, accuses him of not working hard and tells his younger brother, Vito, not to trust Mookie because he’s not like them. Pino tells Vito to “remember who you are” when he notices Vito becoming too friendly with Mookie. Despite the obvious discords between Mookie and the Italian family trio there is a sense of intimate domesticity in the pizzeria. Although there are scenes with “Pino’s racist outbursts or Sal’s insinuations….Mookie nevertheless always challenges and always argues with them, always asserting himself as an equal partner in a dialogue. This is the foundation of his rapport with Sal, and of their mutual in-your-face candor, a candor that extends to Vito, even Pino” (Bartley 2006).

“Do The Right Thing” exhibits cultural identity not only through color, rhythm, music and portrayals of economic disparity, but also through the language of the Italian, Korean and Hispanic characters in the film. Their uses of American slang and the languages of their culture reflect their origin. The diction used by the African American characters is more nonchalant but equally valued within their cultural identity (Lee, 2007). The Italian characters use Italian lingo whenever they are irritated or are insulting another character. The Korean storeowner also speaks Korean to his wife when he becomes upset with a customer. The insulting speech sputtered during the montage of racial slurs and the intense scenes demonstrate how severe “verbal” racism can lead to violence. Pino shouts to the viewers, “You gold-teeth-gold-chain-wearin’, fried-chicken-and-biscuit-eatin’, monkey, ape, baboon, big thigh, fast-runnin’, three-hundred-sixty-degree-basketball-dunkin’ spade Moulan Yan.” These stereotypes he addresses are not all negative but they are labels African Americans have been battling to erase because they can be perceived as offensive (Perry, 2007). The medley of racial slurs is the “point of maximum racial tension” (Bartley, 2006) in a community where dialogue is the core foundation of social life.

“Do the Right Thing” exemplifies the challenges to conform to a culture while maintaining a sense of individualism in America. At the end of the film, Mookie provokes the riot outside of Sal’s Famous Pizzeria by throwing a trash can through the window. He had a calm sense of decorum throughout the film, which boiled down to that one distinctive moment of deciding what the “right thing” to do is at that moment. Should he conform to his fellow African Americans and participate in the violent backlash? Or should he step over the invisible line of race and protect the facility providing him with financial means to survive another day in Brooklyn? This conundrum goes hand in hand with the contradictory philosophies of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X cited at the end of the film.

Martin Luther King Jr. encouraged dialogue and nonviolent alternatives to physical altercations. His empathetic and virtuous nature is seen in Mookie. Mookie becomes a peace keeper when Sal kicks Buggin’ Out, a self-righteous black man, from his pizzeria for causing a scene about having “brothas up on the wall.” Mookie encourages Buggin’ Out to walk away from the situation in order to “squash” the quarrel. Mookie is also the common link between most of the ethnic groups in the Brooklyn community of the film. He has a baby with a Hispanic woman, works for the Italian pizzeria and is racially a part of the African American group. Although there are a multitude of racist remarks and themes in the film, some characters desire a unity between the groups who share the same street in Brooklyn. Sal and Vito normally attempt to ignore the blatant racial atmosphere by treating all customers in the same humanitarian manner, giving leniency to Da Mayor, who has little monetary funds, and being fond of Mookie’s sister, Jade. “Normally” is said in reference to Sal because Sal’s racist impatience come out in the confrontation with Buggin’ Out. So for much of the film, between a number of the main characters, Martin Luther King’s philosophy prevails.

Malcolm X was the alternative to Martin Luther King Jr. promoting violence as a method to defend oneself when necessary. The Black Panther party was also founded on similar beliefs in the 1960’s. Buggin’ Out’s entourage references the Black Panthers during a dispute between the group of African-Americans and the Caucasian bicyclist. One of Buggin’ Out’s friends says, “A black panther would whoop his ass.” That statement was followed by Buggin’ Out saying, “You’re lucky the Black man has a loving heart…If I wasn’t a righteous Black man you’d be in serious trouble, serious!” The attitudes of Malcolm X and the Black Panthers influence these characters to be aggressive towards the Caucasian bicyclist.

In the beginning of the film, Smiley, a mentally handicapped African-American man who is hawking photographs of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, holds up a photo of the two men saying they are dead and proclaiming “We still have to fight against hate.” His introduction leads the way for thematic portrayals of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X’s philosophies interlaced throughout the film.

At the end of the film two quotes scroll up on the screen. One was by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr, who said:

“Violence as a way of achieving racial justice is both impractical and immoral. It is impractical because it is a descending spiral ending in destruction of all. The law of an eye for an eye leaves everyone blind. It is immoral because it seeks to annihilate the opponent rather than win his understanding; it seeks to annihilate rather than to convert. Violence is immoral because it thrives on hatred rather than love. It destroys community and makes brotherhood impossible. It leaves society in monologue rather than dialogue. Violence ends by defeating itself. It creates bitterness in the survivors and brutality in the destroyers.”

The second quote by Malcolm X read:

“I think there are plenty of good people in America, but there are also plenty of bad people in America and the bad ones are the ones who seem to have all the power and be in these positions to block things that you and 1 need. Because this is the situation, you and I have to preserve the right to do what is necessary to bring an end to that situation, and it doesn’t mean that I advocate violence, but at the same time I am not against using violence in self-defense. I don’t even call it violence when it’s self-defense. I call it intelligence.”

These quotes are polar opposites; however, there is no way of determining which is ”right” because the right thing to do is decided by the individual making the decision. Subsequently following the death of Radio Raheem chaos erupts in the street of the Bedford-Stuyvesant section of Brooklyn. Bartley argues, “The nonwhite community, now spontaneously conscious of its need to defend itself, redefines itself according to a communal recollection of its historical relationship to white authority, as represented by the tableau of neighborhood men who publicly and ritualistically reiterate, each in turn, a litany of police crimes: ‘Murder, they did it again, just like Michael Stewart; Murder, Eleanor Bumpers, Murder!’ Whether or not Mookie’s actions in initiating the riot against Sal’s Famous Pizzeria were the right thing to do, his actions symbolize the distrust between the white and nonwhite communities. The racial differences in this community embody the melting pot America has become — which in this case becomes a “boiling” pot. The film leaves the question “what is the right thing?” deliberately unanswered because it is the growth of the community and the cultures the characters belong to—and the conflict and complementarity between these two approaches– that perseveres in the daily ongoing, social reality of the community as Sal’s Famous Pizzeria goes up in flames.

References:

• Bartley, William. “Mookie as “Wavering Hero”: Do the Right Thing and the American Historical Romance” Literature Film Quarterly, 2006 .
• Cooper, Brenda. Utah State University. ‘‘The White-Black Fault Line’’: Relevancy of Race and Racism in Spectators’ Experiences of Spike Lee’s Do the Right Thing.”
• Eribo, Festus, PhD. Mass Communication. Professor for the School of Communication at East Carolina University. Interview.
• Jones, J. M. (2002). “Toward a cultural psychology of African Americans.” Online Readings in Psychology and Culture (Unit 3, Chapter 1), (http://www.wwu.edu/~culture), Center for Cross-Cultural Research, Western Washington University, Bellingham, Washington USA
• Jones, James M. “TRIOS: A Psychological Theory of the African Legacy in American Culture.” Journal of Social Issues, Volume 59, Number 1, April 2003 , pp. 217-242(26)
• Lee, Felicia R. The New York Times. “Exploring the ‘Imprint’ of black Americans.” April 16, 2007.
• Michaels, Walter Benn. The Trouble with Diversity: How we Learned to Love the Identity and Ignore the Inequality. Metropolitan Books; Henry Holt and Company, LLC. 2006.
• Perry, Imani. The Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law. “Let me Holler at You: African-American Culture,

Depression does not have one universal cause. Causes can include “genetic, biochemical, environmental, and psychological factors” (“Depression”). There has been research showing depression is an illness caused by the brain. MRIs taken from people suffering from depression have been shown to look and function differently. Often severe loss or stress can cause a person to suffer from depressive episodes (“Depression”). Symptoms of depression vary from person to person depending on the type of illness the person has. Some common symptoms are: frequent sadness and anxiety, pessimism, feeling helpless and unimportant, irritability, fatigue, loss of interest in enjoyable activities, insomnia, change in appetite, and suicidal thought or actions (“Depression”).

Using the knowledge I gained about depression, I was able to look into my movie, American Splendor, with greater detail and understand its psychological dimensions better. I believe both of the main characters in the movie, Harvey Pekar and his wife Joyce Brabner, suffer from a type of depression at some point in their lives together. It is clear from the survey of types of depression I described above that Joyce Brabner suffers from depression during the times she would lay in bed for hours and not move. She wants to sleep and do nothing else during these depressive episodes. I feel Harvey Pekar suffers from depression when he is first diagnosed with cancer. He feels like giving up because cancer has somehow taken over his life and he can not do anything else but go through the treatment in attempt to minimize the cancer. Each of the characters is able to cope with their depression in their own way. The question is, “what is the most effective method for dealing with depression?”

There are many ways to cope with and possibly overcome depression. In the movie, Joyce was able to get out of bed and do something with her day when she heard about children overseas in Israel who need help. She feels she could make a difference in children’s lives by taking a trip to Israel, and that motivates her to do something. After Joyce makes the trip, the audience sees she is smiling again and enjoying life.

Harvey takes another approach to overcome his depression. Throughout the movie, we see Harvey loves to write for comic books. When he is diagnosed with cancer, Joyce begins a new comic book with an artist she knows, anticipating Harvey’s participation at some point in the project. As she suspected, Harvey accepts the fact he has cancer, and is able to take over the comic book. In the comic book, he writes about his year with cancer. The title of this comic book is “Our Cancer Year,” it was a joint project of Harvey Pekar and his wife. This project allowed Pekar to remove himself from his cancer treatment and write as if it is not happening to him, but happening to the character in his comic book. Once the comic book is being written we see a change in Harvey because he is now able to enjoy his life more—and the more creativity that sustains him. The common thread for both characters is their depression appears to be diminished when they find something making them feel useful and important in their lives.

In the movie we see these two ways people cope with depression, but there are many more. In one article I found eight tips for living with depression. They are: join a support group, reduce your stress, improve your sleep hygiene, improve your eating habits, learn how to stop negative thoughts, beat procrastination, get a handle on your household chores, and learn how to forgive. Each tip helps cope with depression in a different way. Joining a support group can help because you are able to meet and exchange with people who can understand, support, and listen to you. Another tip stems from the fact that long-term stress is connected to depression because it affects the neurotransmitters in your brain. Your mood can be improved by getting more sleep because sleep and moods have a direct correlation. Even though stopping negative thoughts seems simple, it is easier said than done. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which changes a person’s normal pattern of thinking, offers one strategy for preventing persistent negative thoughts. Cognitive Behavior Therapy is based on the idea our thoughts cause our feeling and behaviors, as oppose to external influences. The last tip in the list, learning how to forgive, can allow us to let go of anger and frustration and lift our spirits (“Top 8 Tips”).

Social interactions can also play a huge part in coping with depression. A study by Dr. Martin Seligman and Ed Diener showed happier people are more social. They split up 222 college students into three different groups. The groups were either overwhelmingly happy most of the time, overwhelmingly unhappy most of the time, or those whose moods fell within an average range. The professors then had each of the students write down their mood each day for one semester. The students were supposed to write down if there were other factors affecting their mood, such as exercise or religious activities in their day. When analyzing the data the researchers found the happiest people did not have a significant difference in the amount of exercise or participation in religious activities. However, they were more sociable, more outgoing, and had stronger relationships with friends. While analyzing the data, it was also found people who were the happiest still did feel some instances of sadness but were able to handle and cope with them better (“You’ve Got to”). If a person who suffers from depression were to try to become more social by talking to people they may not normally talk to, that may build up self-esteem and allow the person to feel better.

Another way to overcome depression is to reduce stress. Stress can be extremely hard on those who suffer from depression because it can trigger or prolong the duration of the depression. Ways to cope with stress are generally quite simple. First you must identify your stressors, which is everything that creates stress in your life. Next, you must go easy on yourself because being a perfectionist will cause more stress when the goal is not met. Another way to cope with stress is to plan ahead. Know your stressors and avoid them to protect yourself. Last, learn how to relax because some stress is not avoidable. Using relaxation methods and meditation can help a person relax and let go of the stress (“Recovering”). Once a person’s stress level is reduced, they can enjoy activities more because they don’t have something bothering them at all hours of the day.

Most Americans know a healthy diet and good nutrition can prevent or reduce the risk of many illnesses and diseases. Good nutrition can also play a large role in depression. It is suggested in order to protect mental health a healthy diet should be followed (“Healthly Eating’).If a person is depressed, eating an unhealthy diet can make that person feel even worse. If they begin to eat better they may begin to feel better. Suggestions for improving a person’s diet are: eating regularly throughout the day; choosing less refined high sugar food and drinks and more wholegrain cereals, fruits, and vegetables; including protein at each meal; eating a wide variety of foods; including oily fish in diet; maintaining a healthy weight; maintain an adequate fluid intake; and only drinking alcohol within recommended limits. A person suffering from depression should see improvement in their mood if they apply these tips and other coping mechanisms (“Healthy Eating”).

Another effective way to cope with depression is to exercise regularly because exercise releases endorphins, neurotransmitters that create feelings of wellbeing. In one study, the effects of a drug and exercise were compared. This study used 156 men and women over a 16 week period that were diagnosed with depression and divided them into three groups. One group was given antidepressants, another group was put on an aerobic exercise program, and the last group was given antidepressants and put on the exercise program. Results from this study showed that all participants in all groups improved, but the ones taking the antidepressants improved the fastest. It was also shown that 68.8% of people in the combination group, 60.4% of the exercise group, and 65.5% of the medication group were no longer clinically depressed (“Depression and Exercise”). These statistics show regular exercise can be just as effective for treating people with depression as medication can be.

The cognitive cycle is clear. When a person with depression thinks negatively, they throw themselves into a continuous downward spiral; not only does depression cause people to think negatively, but negative thoughts also allow depression to continue and possibly worsen. In order to break this cycle, a person must replace their negative thoughts with realistic ones. One way to replace negative thoughts is to think outside yourself. A good example of this is when people criticize themselves about their weight or other features on their body. By asking themselves if these negative comments were appropriate being said to another person, one who suffers from these negative thoughts could realize they are not productive being said internally. Another way to replace negative thoughts is to keep a “negative thought log” so that whenever you think of a negative thought it can be recorded in your notebook for reference later. Next, you can replace negatives with positives, which means for every negative thought you must think of a positive one. Last, you can socialize with positive people (“Recovering”). By replacing negative thoughts, a person is able to break the cycle of negativity and allow positive things into their life.

Many people with depression do not have motivation and retreat into themselves because that seems to be the safest and easiest way. To break that cycle, Dr. David D. Burns suggests a person keep a daily activity schedule. In order to do this, each day a person must write what they want to accomplish during each hour of the day and then at the end of the day write down what they actually accomplished. Dr. Burns also suggests people plan fun activities as well as needed activities because many people who suffer from depression do not think about planning fun activities (Woolston). It is also suggested a person score their activities “on a scale from 0 to 5. Something really fun or challenging gets a 5; anything dull or simple gets a 1 or 0. You can set different goals you want to reach each week, raising them slightly each time” (Woolston). Using this technique allows a person to become motivated again and helps a person overcome depression one small step at a time.

I believe if the characters in the movie, Harvey Pekar and Joyce Brabner use these eight tips given they would be much more successful in overcoming their depression. Each of these tips is able to help out a person in a different way, and each is effective in its own way. After looking at the types of depression and the ways each character was able to overcome them, I have come to a conclusion of to which type of depression each character may have had. I believe Joyce Brabner suffers from dysthymia because she is not always depressed, she has her moods where she would not do anything but lay on the couch, but then she would also have her days where she is up and being productive. On the other hand, I believe Harvey Pekar suffers from major depression because he is depressed throughout most of the movie. He hits peaks of depression during his separation with his wife, being kicked off The David Letterman Show, and being diagnosed with cancer. Even when his life seems to be going great, he is still somewhat depressed and down in spirits. Therefore, from this evidence it is plausible Harvey Pekar suffers from major depression.

Some coping strategies for depression are ineffective—and can even do harm. People may choose what is called a distraction method, which does not bring the person closer to their goal of overcoming depression. It has been proven that men are “more likely to cope with depressed mood through distraction methods such as playing sports, engaging in hobbies and substance abuse” (Kelly). In contrast, “women use more emotionally focused coping such as crying, seeking social support and dwelling on the causes and implications of their depression” (Kelly). When using alcohol or illegal drugs, a person is coping with their depression, but that coping mechanism will not lead them to a life without depression; instead, it could lead them to more illnesses and addictions because of their dependency on outside substances that are unhealthy for the body. Then they become “dual diagnosis” person who suffers from depression and a drug or alcohol abuse problem.

One last way to overcome depression is by medication. Medication allows for another variable in overcoming depression. The side effects of many medications may cause more problems then solutions though. Medication are prescribed with precaution due to adverse health effects.

The movie, American Splendor, provides a starting point and a point of reference for two forms of depression, and gave me a more specific, concrete vision of depression to build upon. After researching coping strategies to deal with depression and their effectiveness, I have come to the conclusion that in many cases a person would be able to cope with depression without resorting to medications and possible complications. Also I learned a film can provide an effective and compelling presentation of depression in films, as well as point of departure for further reflection and study of this pervasive mental health issue affecting so many in our society.

Works Cited

• “Depression.” National Institute of Mental Health. 23 November 2007. National Institutes of Health. 23 Nov. 2007 .
• “Depression and Exercise.” Better Health Channel. June 2007. 23 Nov. 2007 .
• “Healthy Eating and Depression.” 2007. Mental Health Foundation. 19 Nov. 2007 .
• Kelly, Morgan A.R. et al. “The Relationship Between Beliefs About Depression and Coping Strategies: Gender Differences.” British Journal of Clinical Psychology. 46.3 (September 2007): 315-332
  
• “Recovering from Depression.” Helpguide.org. 19 August 2007. 19 Nov. 2007
• Schimelpfening, Nancy. “Top 8 Tips for Living With Depression.” About.com. 21 June 2007. 19 Nov. 2007 .
• Schimelpfening, Nancy. “You’ve Got to Have Friends.” About.com. 10 July 2006. 19 Nov. 2007
• Woolston, Chris. “Getting Motivated When You’re Down.” A Healthy Me!. 31 July 2006. 19 Nov. 2007

Stig Inge is not the only character in the film who is shown to have a psychological issue. In fact, nearly every main character has an issue to deal with throughout the course of the movie. The main character, Kristoffer, has issues with commitment. When his girlfriend asks for the keys to his place, he begins to worry, fearing the supposedly rapid progression of their relationship, to the point of asking for his keys back. This causes his girlfriend to question if their relationship is moving forward at all, and she ends up breaking up with him. Kristoffer then spends most of the movie trying to move on, and dealing with both the stress caused by his breakup and his new hit Television show, which begins to pull his friends away from him.

Kristoffer is also the only character in the film whose issues are never shown to be completely resolved. He has trouble moving a relationship forward, and by the end of the movie he is in another relationship. He never really goes further in any relationship during the movie, so we can only wonder if he really overcame his fear of commitment. His friends, though, manage to make obvious advances in facing their issues.

The other main character shown to have psychological issues is Geir, who is a reluctant father. Near the beginning of the film, he goes through great lengths to avoid being seen by the mother of his young son. When he finally meets his son, he takes it hard at first and does not want to have to deal with the issues he represents. Later on, however, he begins to appreciate him and see him in a proud way. Kristoffer’s television segment eventually reveals to the boy that Geir is his father, which causes some tension between Kristoffer and Geir, but Geir eventually becomes the father figure he was afraid he could not be. His fear of being a terrible father kept him from wanting to be a father. By the end of the movie, Geir is a proud father and has mended his friendship with Kristoffer.

Psychotherapy is often used in films, yet very rarely in a completely accurate manner. Instead, it is portrayed as the script needs it to be portrayed, and accuracy is sacrificed for the storyline. “The primary objective of the film industry is to create an evocative and entertaining storyline, not to accurately display the theoretical complexities and sophistication of the world’s professions” (Orchowski, Spickard, McNamara, 507). Many films take a few liberties with the reality of some psychological problems to suit the needs of the story. The film “Buddy,” while it does take small liberties with agoraphobia, takes fewer liberties than most other Hollywood movies and stays relatively true to the actual symptoms. However, the character Stig Inge’s panic attacks seem born of his agoraphobia only, and his agoraphobia is not given any indication of being caused by a panic attack, as is mostly the case. “About half of panic-disordered patients develop the symptoms of agoraphobia.” (Gassner, 223). Instead, his agoraphobia is never given any explanation of its origin. Another thing that does not quite ring true is Stig’s ability to completely get over his fear after a single incident. Normally, a panic attack reinforces a person’s agoraphobia, because they fear having another panic attack. “These are patients who believe they might be able to protect themselves from experiencing a recurrence of panic if they restrict their activity and use avoidant strategies such as remaining homebound” (Gassner, 223). Panic attacks can lead to agoraphobia. The film, however, shows the character Stig Inge supposedly being cured after recovering from one.

One interesting possibility is that Stig Inge is not cured, but has his “avoidant strategies” expand to include remaining near his friends Kristoffer and Geir. Since Kristoffer helps him recover from one panic attack, it would make sense Stig Inge would feel safe from future attacks while around him, instead of only feeling safe within the Toyen Center. Aside from the one time which resulted in an attack, he is never seen or indicated to have left without either Kristoffer or Geir nearby. Regardless, the film manages to correctly portray agoraphobia (even though its actual name is never mentioned in the movie) as a fear of leaving a “safe place,” and shows Stig Inge having what is clearly a panic attack when he forces himself to leave. Even if the film illustrates wrong details of agoraphobia, it at least manages to correctly show what agoraphobia is.

I found the film interesting myself, and I identify with Stig Inge to some degree. I have some obsessive-compulsive tendencies, as does Stig, but neither of us has enough to be diagnosed as having obsessive-compulsive disorder. The film techniques used when Stig Inge was having a panic attack really drew me in and had me genuinely worried about him. I was happy when he faces his fear and overcame it.

Kristoffer, on the other hand, struck me as having no real moral aside from the friendship one. Any problems he has involving relationships become moot for the moment during the end, when he begins a completely new relationship. When the movie began, it gave the impression it would have a relationship themed storyline, which it did, but the relationship part of it never seems to reach a resolution to me. Instead, a new relationship starts the cycle over again. To me, the movie seems to have a mixed ending; where many characters come to a resolution and face their fears directly, the main character did not seem to.

The film “Buddy” shows us a small group of friends, each with their own problems and issues. Throughout the movie, we watch them struggle and strive with their inner problems, the ones life throws at them, and the ones they accidentally inflict on one another. In the end, they supposedly have come to terms with their problems and can go on to live a happier life. Whether or not this is true, the fact remains “Buddy” is a film of psychological struggle, and portrays both common and uncommon difficulties people could face in life. The issues in psychology play a part in this movie, and help to shape the storyline into a romantic comedy with a bit of a psychological perspective. This film leaves me with senses of enjoyment, relief, and a slight worry and discomfort that the issues the characters faced within it may not be gone for good.

Bibliography

• “Cinema and the Valuing of Psychotherapy: Implications for Clinical Practice.” McNamara, John R.; Orchowski, Lindsay M.; Spickard, Brad A. – pages 506-514
• “The Role of Traumatic Experience in Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia.” Gassner, Suzanne M. – pages 222-243
• http://www.moviepie.com/filmfests/buddy.htm
• http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0371589/
• “Understanding Movies” eleventh edition by: Louis Giannetti

American History X was released in 1998 by New Line Cinema in a cut form which director Tony Kaye attempted to disown. His gripe with star Edward Norton and studio execs led him to file a $275 million suit against the distribution company. With troubles aside, the movie remains a classic representation of issues facing American society. The characters in American History X demonstrate the theory of cognitive development while echoing the problems of racism in America as well as the influence of neo-Nazi organizations. Throughout this paper I will discuss psychological aspects, film studies, and my own personal narrative with regards to American History X.

The movie tells the story of a poor white American family torn apart by the neo-Nazi tendencies of two brothers and the repercussions it brings. Everything takes place over the course of one day, a day in which Derek Vinyard (Norton) gets released from prison for the brutal murders of two African American men. Black and white flashbacks are used to expose events that have happened in the past. As the young protégé of ringleader Cameron Alexander, a man truly obsessed with the powers of fascist control, Derek begins to preach Cameron’s teachings to the young corruptible minds of Venice Beach. It is only after Derek is sentenced to three years in prison and is brutally raped by fellow members of the Aryan Brotherhood that he reforms his ways and reenters society as a changed man. Upon his release, Derek realizes that his little brother, Danny, is apparently under the control of Cameron and heading towards a similar fate. Derek hastens to undo the brainwashing he believes Danny to have received before it is too late.

American History X does a remarkable job of displaying America’s problems with racism. This movie is Mississippi Burning on steroids. Its brutal subject matter pushes its viewers to the curb, makes them bite it, and then stomps them on the back of the head until the issue is forced into their brains. Some people in America are instilled with racist thoughts throughout their entire upbringing. This is where the theory of cognitive development comes into play. The theory, made famous by Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, concerns the growth of intelligence within the human body. It encompasses “the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in the world” (Piaget). Take Derek for example. During a normal dinner conversation with the family when he is discussing a novel he has been assigned to read by a black author, his father launches into a spiel in which he criticizes the also black teacher and proclaims the work his son must do as “nigger bullshit.” At this point in time Derek is in the concrete operational stage, “characterized by the appropriate use of logic.” The teachings of those closest to him, i.e. his father, sensibly have the largest impact on him and help mold the way he thinks for years to come. Derek’s mind has not completely developed and as a result, his “normal mode for cognition, even as (an) adult” does not allow him to fully reason with his surroundings. It is with this train of thought in which many American children are raised, that it is no wonder racism is more widespread here than in any other country. “It is not a disgrace to have absorbed some racism. It is a disgrace not to know it and to let those parts of ourselves go unchecked” (Ezekiel). Everyone has experienced some form of racism at some point in their life; it should be their concern over whether or not they let the issue affect the way they live their lives. No matter what the impact may be, positive or negative, let it be known “there will always be layers (of oneself) that harbor racist thoughts and racist attitudes. This is not to say that those must remain the dominant parts of (ones) mind” (Ezekiel).

Blatant discrimination against African Americans has become somewhat more subtle in today’s society. However it still manages to carry on in nearly all aspects of life. “Contrary to a common white view, modern racism does not consist mainly of the isolated acts of scattered white bigots, but rather has been inescapable in the everyday world of African Americans. Almost any encounter with whites, in workplaces, schools, neighborhoods, and public places, can mean a confrontation with racism” (Feagin). In order to overcome these fearful incidents, people must have “at heart, a positive self image” that allows oneself to recognize “the persisting flaws in the U.S. social system.” Only once blame is stopped from being carelessly thrown around so as to insult members of each race will Americans be able to live in harmony. Rachel Schuster relates the struggles of the famous black tennis player Arthur Ashe to the effects of racism: “A few months before he died of AIDS in 1993, the black tennis star was asked if that deadly disease had been the most difficult challenge he had faced in his life. Reflecting on his battle with AIDS, Ashe replied that another challenge was even greater: “Being black is. No question about it. Even now it continues to feel like an extra weight tied around me” (Shuster).

The influence of neo-Nazi organizations upon American youths is also apparent throughout Tony Kaye’s film. Leadership of such groups is the integral part for the implementation of their ideals. Derek and Danny Vinyard have both fallen into the trap set by Cameron Alexander, the leader and foremost authority on anything having to deal with white supremacy and neo-Nazism across California. Cameron has all the power; his verbose speeches are etched into the minds of young individuals that are tired of being vilified and looking for a way to fight back. “He can make his listeners feel that they are part of something that is happening, that these are not empty words” (Ezekiel). Cameron holds his sphere of influence over the heads of his starving children and rarely lets go. “At core, he is a political organizer. His motive is power. Racism is his tool. He is most alive when he senses himself influencing men, affecting them.” Cameron breeds these young kids to think as an extension of his own ideas. As cognitive theory would state, “the representational and logical operations available to the child(ren) extends to all kinds of concepts and knowledge” (Piaget). It is this sort of strong leadership that leads to strength in numbers within the neo-Nazi community. “The living expression of the resentment and anger of the listeners” forces the group as a whole to become stronger. It is at this point in which members take actions that lead to the hatred and destruction of fellow human beings. Only once Derek has been released from prison and entirely transformed his outlook on life does he enter the formal operational stage of cognitive development. It is “characterized by acquisition of the ability to think abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as shades of gray and values” (Piaget). Derek now has the capacity to recognize the mistakes he has made and to try to correct them through saving his younger brother.

American History X is an example of classical Hollywood. Sometimes referred to as classical cinema, it blends elements of both realism and formalism, prohibiting films of this nature from being classified as either one. The style used is not flashy by any means yet it is not as basic as some other films such as documentaries. Rather than (belonging to) airtight categories,” films such as American History X encompass a “continuous spectrum of possibilities” (Gianetti). The narrator forces the audience to become involved with the character’s emotions and causes the viewer to actually feel for them by the end of the movie.

There is one scene in particular that stands out as more influential than all the rest. It is titled: “I Keep Going Back to That Night Again and Again.” This scene takes place about a third of the way into the movie and is pivotal in understanding the basis for the film. Derek Vinyard, a member of the D.O.C., a neo-Nazi organization, is alerted by his little brother, Danny, to the fact that three black men are attempting to break in and steal Derek’s car. Derek grabs his gun, rushes downstairs, throws open the front door, and quickly shoots the first assailant, killing him instantly. He then fires at the second attacker, a man named Lawrence, and proceeds to shoot at the third enemy as he is driving away. Derek then goes back to Lawrence, makes him bite the curb, and stomps the back of his head. As this is happening, Danny runs outside and witnesses everything as it unfolds. Moments later the police arrive on the scene and arrest Derek. Right before the cuffs are put on him there is a look of pure evil on his face that shows how deep his hatred truly runs.

The reason this scene works so well is because of the combination of photography, mise en scene, movement, editing, and sound. The photography within the film intentionally highlights three colors: black, white, and red. The black and white represent the two main races that are at odds with one another throughout the film. When paired with red, these colors evoke images of the Nazi flag which is seen several times throughout the movie. It is used to pay homage to the Nazi party and their beliefs which have directly influence both Derek and Danny. The stark colors help to deliver a very dark message, a message that is fueled by anger and hate. The mise en scene is evident through the placement of two road signs in this scene. On the corner where Derek is arrested there are two signs that read: STOP and RIGHT TURN ONLY. These two ideals parallel the life of Derek who reforms his ways and becomes an entirely different person by the movies’ end. The signs are thus placed so as to portray the significance of the event taking place. Movement is used to emphasize both the hostility that Derek harbors, and the negative effects he has on others. The scene plays out in slow motion on two separate occasions. When Danny runs out of the house and sees his brother killing the black men, and also after the police arrive as Derek slowly puts down the gun, smiles, and then gets down on the ground to be arrested. The editing is exceptionally well done. From the time Derek shoots his first victim until his arrest, the scene evolves from one central location, the viewpoint of Derek’s younger brother, taking the form of a long shot with slow pans placed throughout. Only when the director wants to convey emotion does he switch to close ups and extreme close ups of the character’s faces. The pre production planning involved with this is outstanding. Although to me it is the sound that really makes this scene what it is. “Cinematic sound…does not simply add to, but multiplies, two or three times, the effect of the image” (Gianetti). At the beginning there is fast paced, rampant music that builds the tension, followed by taunts from Derek. Then there are loud, distinct sound bites of gunshots and the crunch of teeth upon a curb. Next there is intense shouting, all on behalf of the arresting officer, which leads into soft music and the submission of Derek Vinyard. The way I see it, this is one of the most powerful scenes in modern day cinematic history.

I first saw American History X a couple of months before I graduated from middle school, in the winter of my eighth grade year when I was about 14. Since then it has had an immense impact on my life and affected me in more ways than I can even begin to describe. Throughout my middle school career I was somewhat of a problem child. Actually, I was more of a terror upon all those who attended my school. Being young and naïve at the time, I made hurtful remarks of various magnitudes, was kicked out of class on numerous occasions, and got into several scuffles on the blacktop. I was that kid always sitting in the principal’s office or staying after school for a detention day after day. I was constantly in trouble. During what came to be my final parent conference of middle school, my principal delivered an ultimatum: change or get out. And there it was, laid out for me as clear as day. I had the choice to either completely reform my ways or get kicked out of school. The very next day my parents forced me to start taking anger management classes and scheduled me to see a psychologist or a “worthless, seedy asshole” as I referred to him back in the day. After successfully completing my anger management course and countless sessions with my shrink, I was like a phoenix rising from the ashes, reborn as someone entirely new. I graduated high school with hardly any blemishes on my record, save for a few detentions here and there, and somehow managed to end up in the top 10% of my class.

If there is one character that I could relate to from cinema’s extensive and memorable past, it is most certainly Derek Vinyard, the protagonist of American History X. Like me, Derek completely transformed who he was, changing from influential neo-Nazi leader, into a cultured, well-read member of society. Watching Derek Vinyard in the movie was like watching a version of myself onscreen. I could see all of the things wrong with him and criticize his every move, but in reality all I wanted to do was correct myself. Being able to identify with Derek goes to show just how powerful this film can be. After Derek’s release from prison he saw things in a new light. After nearly a years worth of clinical observation, a prison of my own, I too have a different outlook on life. Every time I watch American History X I am transported back to a time in my life that is strewn with internal strife. For a little while I feel as if I am beginning to experience my struggles all over again. But when the film ends and the credits roll, I realize how much stronger I have become mentally, for now I can see the progress that I have made. Seeing the movie again and again only helps in upholding my personal growth. Some people may criticize American History X for its glorification of violence and characteristic stereotypes; however it is my belief that it presents the viewer with important messages that can be learned. This remarkable film can help people discover who they truly are and allow them to realize that we can learn from the mistakes of our past. Even the most racist person can discover the flaws in their own beliefs, just as Danny did before he died. He realized that, “Hate is baggage. Life’s too short to be pissed off all the time. It’s just not worth it” (American History X).

References

• American History X. Prod. Michel De Luca. Dir. Tony Kaye. Perf. Edward Norton, Edward Furlong. DVD. New Line Cinema, 1998.
• Ezekiel, Raphael S. “An Ethnographer Looks at Neo-Nazi and Clan Groups: The Racist Mind Revisited.” The American Behavioral Scientist. (2002): p. 51-71
• Feagin, Joe R., and Melvin P. Sykes. Living With Racism: The Black Middle-Class Experience. Boston: Beacon Press, 1994.
• Gianetti, Louis. Understanding Movies. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007.
• Piaget, Jean. “The Construction of Reality in the Child”. New York: Basic Books, 1954.
• Shuster, Rachel. “Ashe Legacy Goes Beyond Sports, Race,” USA Today, 8 Feb. 1993, p. 1C.